The classical accounts of Greek and Roman writers; and subsequently; the works of Chinese pilgrims portrayed the splendour of civilization in ancient India. By the seventh century; the world scenario had altered significantly with the advent of Islam and the attendant era of Arab expansion. The age of Arab travellers; geographers; merchants and historians commenced with the Islamic ascendancy. India was then at a high point in her intellectual and cultural attainments. The Arabs transmitted knowledge of Indian numerals; mathematics; philosophy and logic; mysticism; ethics; statecraft; military science; medicine; astronomy and astrology to the outside world. Arab travellers described the grandeur and wealth of the kings of India; singling out for special mention the Palas; the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. Politically; while north India was being subjected to Arab and Turkish invasions which culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in A.D. 1206; the south moved on a different trajectory. In the last quarter of the tenth century; the mighty Cholas on the Coromandel Coast replaced the Rashtrakutas as the paramount kings of India. By A.D. 1200; the Chola kingdom had withered away. In A.D. 1336; was established the Vijayanagar kingdom; which stood as a bulwark against Muslim attacks from the north for over two centuries. Meanwhile; several European missions and missionaries undertook the journey to China; visiting India en route; or on their return journey. European merchants took advantage of the land routes opened by the Mongol conquests and some of them managed to visit India. Besides the works of European travellers; traders and merchants; several Chinese accounts of India are also available from the twelfth century.
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